Title: Calculating radio emissions of positive streamer phenomena using 3D simulations

Abstract: We study radio emissions from positive streamers in air using 3D simulations, from which the radiated electric field is computed by solving Jefimenko's equations. The simulations are performed at 0.5 bar using two photoionization methods: the Helmholtz approximation for a photon density and a Monte Carlo method using discrete photons, with the latter being the most realistic. We consider cases with single streamers, streamer branching, streamers interacting with preionization and streamer-streamer encounters. We do not observe a strong VHF radio signal during or after branching, which is confirmed by lab experiments. This indicates that the current inside a streamer discharges evolves approximately continuously during branching. On the other hand, stochastic fluctuations in streamer propagation due to Monte Carlo photoionization lead to more radio emission being emitted at frequencies of 100 MHz and above. Another process that leads to such high-frequency emission is the interaction of a streamer with a weakly preionized region, for example present due to a previous discharge. In agreement with previous work, we observe the strongest and highest-frequency emission from streamer encounters. The amount of total energy that is radiated seems to depend primarily on the background electric field, and less on the particular streamer evolution. Finally, we present approximations for the maximal current along a streamer channel and a fit formula for a streamer's current moment.